The Haitian Revolution French: It began in and ended in with the former colony's independence. It was the only slave uprising that led to the founding of a state, which was both free from slavery, and ruled by non-whites and former captives.

Its effects on the institution of slavery were felt throughout the Americas. The ending of French rule and the abolition of slavery in the former colony by the former slaves was followed by their successful defense of the freedoms they won, and, with the collaboration of mulattoestheir independence from rule by white Europeans.

The rebels' organizational capacity and tenacity under pressure became the source of stories that shocked and frightened slave owners. While acknowledging the cross-influences, most contemporary historians distinguish the Haitian Revolution from the French Revolution.

Some even separate it from the mulattoes' earlier armed conflicts, which at first sought political rights for themselves, but not the abolition of slavery. These scholars show that if the agency of the enslaved blacks becomes the focus of studies, the Revolution's opening and closing dates are certain.

From this premise, the narrative began with the enslaved blacks' bid for freedom through armed struggle and concluded with their victory over slaving powers and the creation of an independent state.

In Aprila massive black insurgency turned violently against the plantation systemsetting a precedent of resistance to racial slavery. Although it is known as a single event under the name of "Haitian Revolution," alternative views suggest that the entire affair was an assorted number of coincidental conflicts that ended with a fragile truce between mulattoes and blacks.

Haiti became an independent country on January 1,when the council of generals chose Jean-Jacques Dessalines to assume the office of governor-general. One of the state's first significant documents was Dessaliness' " Liberty or Death " speech, which circulated broadly in the foreign press. In it, the new head of state made the case for the new nation's coherent objective: An independent government was created in Haiti, but the country's society remained deeply affected by patterns established under French colonial rule.

Many of them had used their social capital to acquire wealth, and some already owned land. Some had identified more with the French colonists than the slaves. Mulatto domination of politics and economics after the revolution created another two-caste society, as most Haitians were rural subsistence farmers. Much of the Caribbean economic development was contingent to Europeans' demand for sugarwhich plantation owners traded for European and North American manufactured goods. Saint Domingue also had extensive coffee, cocoa, and indigo plantations, but these were smaller and less profitable than the wealthy sugar plantations.

By the s Saint-Domingue, together with Jamaicahad become the main supplier of the world's sugar. Sugar production depended on extensive manual labor provided by enslaved Africans in the harsh Saint-Domingue colonial plantation economy. Saint-Domingue was the most profitable French colony in the entire world, indeed one of the most profitable of all the European colonies in the 18th century, with an average of ships engaged every year in shipping products from Saint-Domingue to Bordeaux and the value of Saint-Domingue's goods almost equal in value to all of the products shipped from the British 13 colonies to Great Britain.

Domingue to France can be seen in the livelihood of 1 million out of the 25 million or so people who lived in the Kingdom of France in depended directly upon the imports of coffee, indigo and sugar from St. Domingue, and several million indirectly depended upon trade from France's richest colony to maintain their standard of living.

In one year alone, namelythe French imported about 20, slaves from Africa into Saint-Domingue while the British imported about 38, slaves to all of their Caribbean colonies. The white planters who derived their wealth from the sale of slave-produced sugar knew they were outnumbered by slaves by a factor of more than ten; they lived in fear of slave rebellion.

When slaves left the plantations or disobeyed their masters, they were subject to whipping, or to more extreme torture such as castration or burning, the punishment being both a personal lesson and a warning for other slaves.

Louis XIVthe French King, passed the Code Noir in in an attempt to regulate such violence and the treatment of the enslaved person in general in the colony, but masters openly and consistently broke the code, and local legislation reversed parts of it throughout the 18th century. Inthe white landowners began passing legislation restricting the rights of other groups of people until a rigid caste system was defined.

Most historians have classified the people of the era into three groups. One was the white colonists, or blancs. This group is generally subdivided into the plantation owners and a lower class of whites who often served as overseers or day laborers.

A second was the free blacks usually mixed-race, known as mulattoes or gens de couleur libresfree people of color. These gens de couleur tended to be educated and literate and they often served in the army or as administrators on plantations. Many were children of white planters and enslaved mothers while others had purchased their freedom from their owners through the sale of their own produce or artistic works. They often received education or artisan training, and sometimes inherited freedom or property from their fathers.

Some gens de couleur even operated their own plantations and were slave owners. The third group, outnumbering the others by a ratio of ten to one, was made up of mostly African-born slaves. A high rate of mortality among them meant that planters continually had to import new slaves. This kept their culture more African and separate from other people on the island.

Many plantations had large concentrations of slaves from a particular region of Africa, and it was therefore somewhat easier for these groups to maintain elements of their culture, religion, and language. This also separated new slaves from Africa from creoles slaves born in the colonywho already had kin networks and often had more prestigious roles on plantations and more opportunities for emancipation.

White colonists and black slaves frequently came into violent conflict. Saint-Domingue was a society seething with hatred. The French historian Paul Fregosi wrote: The poor whites couldn't stand the rich whites, the rich whites despised the poor whites, the middle class whites were jealous of the aristocratic whites, the whites born in France looked down upon the locally born whites, mulattoes envied the whites, despised the blacks and were despised by the whites; free Negroes brutalized those who were still slaves, Haitian born blacks regarded those from Africa as savages.

Everyone-quite rightly-lived in terror of everyone else Haiti was hell, but Haiti was rich". Many runaway slaves—called Maroons —hid on the margins of large plantations, living off the land and what they could steal from their former masters.

Others fled to towns, to blend in with urban slaves and freed slaves who often concentrated in those areas. If caught, these runaway slaves would be severely and violently punished. However, some masters tolerated petit marronagesor short-term absences from plantations. Often, however, larger groups of runaway slaves lived in the woods away from control. They often conducted violent raids on the island's sugar and coffee plantations.

Although the numbers in these bands grew large sometimes into the thousandsthey generally lacked the leadership and strategy to accomplish large-scale objectives. A Haitian Vodou priest, Mackandal inspired his people by drawing on African traditions and religions. He united the maroon bands and also established a network of secret organizations among plantation slaves, leading a rebellion from through Although Mackandal was captured by the French and burned at the stake inlarge armed maroon bands persisted in raids and harassment after his death.

The colony was the most profitable possession of the French Empire. Saint-Domingue was also the wealthiest and most prosperous colony, for the plantation owners at least, of all the colonies in the Caribbean.

Inwhites numbered 40,; mulattoes and free blacks, 28,; and black slaves, an estimatedThe slave population declined at an annual rate of two to five percent, due to overwork, inadequate food and shelter, insufficient clothing and medical care, and an imbalance between the sexes, with more men than women.

This relatively privileged class was chiefly born in the Americas, while the under-class born in Africa labored hard, and more often than not, under abusive and brutal conditions. Among Saint-Domingue's 40, white colonials inEuropean-born Frenchmen monopolized administrative posts.

The sugar planters, the grands blancswere chiefly minor aristocrats. Most returned to France as soon as possible, hoping to avoid the dreaded yellow feverwhich regularly swept the colony. Saint-Domingue's free people of color, the gens de couleurnumbered more than 28, by Around that time, colonial legislations, concerned with this growing and strengthening population, passed discriminatory laws that visibly differentiated these freedmen by dictating their clothing and where they could live.

These laws also barred them from occupying many public offices. In addition to class and racial tension between whites, free people of color, and enslaved blacks, the country was polarized by regional rivalries between NordSudand Ouest regions. The North was the center of shipping and trading, and therefore had the largest French elite population. The Plaine-du-Nord on the northern shore of Saint-Domingue was the most fertile area with the largest sugar plantations.

It was the area of most economic importance, especially as most of the colony's trade went through these ports. These slaves would join with urban slaves from Le Cap to lead the rebellion, which began in this region. This area was the seat of power of the grands blancsthe rich white colonists who wanted greater autonomy for the colony, especially economically. The Western Province, however, grew significantly after the capital was moved to Port-au-Prince inand the region became increasingly wealthy in the second half of the 18th century when irrigation projects allowed significant sugar plantation growth.

However, this isolation allowed freed slaves to find profit in trade with British Jamaica, and they gained power and wealth here. In France, the National Assembly made radical changes in French laws, and on 26 Augustpublished the Declaration of the Rights of Mandeclaring all men free and equal. The French Revolution shaped the course of the conflict in Saint-Domingue and was at first widely welcomed in the island.

Wealthy whites saw it as an opportunity to gain independence from France, which would allow elite plantation-owners to take control of the island and create trade regulations that would further their own wealth and power. The African population on the island began to hear of the agitation for independence by the rich European planters, the grands blancswho had resented France's limitations on the island's foreign trade.

The Africans mostly allied with the royalists and the British, as they understood that if Saint-Domingue 's independence were to be led by white slave masters, it would probably mean even harsher treatment and increased injustice for the African population.

The plantation owners would be free to operate slavery as they pleased without the existing minimal accountability to their French peers. Saint-Domingue's free people of colormost notably Julien Raimondhad been actively appealing to France for full civil equality with whites since the s. Raimond used the French Revolution to make this the major colonial issue before the National Assembly of France.

He and an army of around three hundred free blacks fought to end racial discrimination in the area. The conflict up to this point was between factions of whites, and between whites and free blacks. Enslaved blacks watched from the sidelines. Leading 18th-century French writer Count Mirabeau had once said the Saint-Domingue whites "slept at the foot of Vesuvius ", [39] an indication of the grave threat they faced should the majority of slaves launch a sustained major uprising.

The Haitian Revolution was a revolution ignited from below, by the underrepresented majority of the population. Despite the idealist, rational and utopian thinking surrounding both uprisings, extreme brutality was a fundamental aspect of both uprisings. Besides initial cruelty that created the precarious conditions that bred the revolution, there was violence from both sides throughout the revolution.

The period of violence during the French Revolution is known as the Reign of Terror. Those killed via guillotine, "breaking at the wheel", or some other horrific death machines were perceived as adversaries to the revolution and death toll estimates range from 18, to 40, The Revolution in Haiti did not wait on the Revolution in France.

The individuals in Haiti relied on no other resolution but their own. The call for modification of society was influenced by the revolution in France, but once the hope for change found a place in the hearts of the Haitian people, there was no stopping the radical reformation that was occurring.

On April 4,The French National Assembly granted freedom to slaves in Haiti [45] and the revolution culminated in ; Haiti was an independent nation solely of freed peoples.

France's transformation was most influential in Europe, and Haiti's influence spanned across every location that continued to practice slavery.

Baur honors Haiti as home of the most influential Revolution in history. French writer Guillaume Raynal attacked slavery in his history of European colonization. He warns, "the Africans only want a chief, sufficiently courageous, to lead them on to vengeance and slaughter. In addition to Raynal's influence, Toussaint Louverture was a key Enlightened actor in the Haitian Revolution. Enlightened thought divided the world into "enlightened leaders" and "ignorant masses"; [50] Louverture attempted to bridge this divide between the popular masses and the enlightened few.

He attempted to strike a balance between Western Enlightened thought as a necessary means of winning liberation, and not propagating the notion that it was morally superior to the experiences and knowledge of people of color on Saint Domingue.

The existence of slavery in Enlightened society was an incongruity that had been left unaddressed by European scholars. Louverture took on this inconsistency directly in his constitution. In addition, Louverture exhibited a connection to Enlightenment scholars through the style, language and accent of this text.

Like Louverture, Jean-Baptiste Belley was also an active participant in the colony's insurrection. The portrait of Belley by Anne-Louis Girodet de Roussy-Trioson depicts a man who encompasses the French view of its colonies. The portrait creates a stark dichotomy between the refinement of French Enlightenment thought and the reality of the situation in Saint Domingue, through the bust of Raynald and the figure of Belley, respectively.

While distinguished, the portrait still portrays a man trapped by the confines of race. Girodet's portrayal of the former National Convention deputy is telling of the French opinion of colonial citizens by emphasizing the subject's sexuality and including an earring.

Both of these racially charged symbols reveal the desire to undermine the colony's attempts at independent legitimacy, as citizens of the colonies were not able to access the elite class of French Revolutionaries because of their race. Enlightened writer Guillaume Raynal attacked slavery in the edition of his history of European colonization. He also predicted a general slave revolt in the colonies, saying that there were signs of "the impending storm".

Since white plantation owners refused to comply with this decision, within two months isolated fighting broke out between the former slaves and the whites. This added to the tense climate between slaves and grands blancs. Raynal's prediction came true on the night of 21 Augustwhen the slaves of Saint Domingue rose in revolt when thousands of slaves attended a secret vodou voodoo ceremony as a tropical storm came in-the lighting and the thunder was taken as auspicious omens-and later that night, the slaves began to kill their masters and plunged the colony into civil war.

Whites kept control of only a few isolated, fortified camps. The slaves sought revenge on their masters through "pillage, rape, torture, mutilation, and death". Nonetheless, within weeks, the number of slaves who joined the revolt reached someWithin the next two months, as the violence escalated, the slaves killed 4, whites and burned or destroyed sugar plantations and hundreds of coffee and indigo plantations.

Byslave rebels controlled a third of the island. To protect France's economic interests, the Assembly granted civil and political rights to free men of color in the colonies [ citation needed ] in March Apart from granting rights to the free people of color, the Assembly dispatched 6, French soldiers to the island. Meanwhile, inFrance declared war on Great Britain.

The white planters in Saint Domingue, unhappy with Sonthonax made agreements with Great Britain to declare British sovereignty over the colony, believing that the British would maintain slavery. The Spanish forces invaded Saint Domingue and were joined by the slave virtual stock trading bse. For most of the scams and cons to make money, the British and Spanish supplied the rebels with food, ammunition, arms, medicine, naval support, and military advisors.

By Augustthere stock market site govt shutdown only stock market for coke, French soldiers on the island.

Nicolas, the main French naval base in Saint Domingue surrendered to the Royal Navy peacefully. The decision was confirmed and extended by the National Conventionthe first elected Assembly of the First Republic —on the 4th of Februaryunder the leadership of Maximilien Robespierre. It abolished slavery by law in France and all its colonies and granted civil and political where were currency futures first traded to all black men in the colonies.

The French constitutions of and both included the abolition of slavery. The constitution of was never applied, but that of was implemented and lasted until replaced by the consular and imperial constitutions under Napoleon Bonaparte. Despite racial tensions in Saint Domingue, the French revolutionary government at the time welcomed abolition with a show of idealism and optimism.

The emancipation of slaves was viewed as an example of liberty for other countries, much as the American Revolution was meant to serve as the first of many liberation movements. Danton, one of the Frenchmen present at the meeting of the National Convention, expressed this sentiment:.

But today we proclaim it to the universe, and generations to come will glory in this decree; we are proclaiming universal liberty We are working for future generations; let us launch liberty into the colonies; the English are dead, today.

In nationalistic terms, the abolition of slavery also served as a moral triumph of France over England as seen in the latter half of the above quote. Pairs futures trading books pdf the abolition of slavery did not allow for independence and did not persuade [ why? The British force that landed in St.

Domingue in was too small to conquer the place, being only capable of holding only few coastal enclaves, much to the disappointment of the French planters, who had been expecting more and to the relief of Sonthonax, who twice refused ultimatums from Commodore John Ford to surrender Port-au-Prince.

Domingue under General Charles Grey aka "No-flint Grey" and Admiral Sir John Jervis set sail from Portsmouth on 26 Novemberwhich was in defiance of the well known rule that the only time that one could campaign in the West Indies was from September to November, when the mosquitoes that carried malaria and yellow fever were scarce. Lucia and Guadeloupe and troops from his force under the command of John Whyte only arrived in St.

Domingue on 19 May Domingue the British had lost 40 officers and men to yellow fever. Domingue and the rest of the French West Indies, sending out the largest expedition Britain had yet mounted in it history, a force of about 30, men to be carried in ships. General Ralph Abercrombythe commander of the forces committed to the "great push" in the West Indies hesitated over which island to attack when he arrived in Barbados on 17 March before he dispatched a force under Major General Gordon Forbes to Port-au-Prince.

Domingue in the House of Commons, and in FebruaryGeneral John Graves Simcoe arrived to replace Forbes with orders to pull back the British forces to Port-au-Prince. Domingue, which was devouring money and soldiers while failing to produce the expected profits. On 11 AprilColonel Thomas Maitland of the Sixty-second Foot regiment landed in Port-au-Prince, and wrote in a letter to his brother that British forces in St. Domingue had been "annihilated" by the yellow fever.

Domingue was extremely unpopular in the British Army owing to terrible death toll caused by yellow fever with one British officer writing of his horror of seeing his friends "drowned indicadores para forex tester 1 their own blood" while "some died raving Mad". Domingue, a thesis that was so persuasive by somerset ky livestock auction point that in March Maitland returned with a mandate to withdraw, at least from Port-au-Prince.

Domingue, writing that the expedition had become such a complete disaster that withdrawal was the only sensible thing to do, even through he did not have the authority to do so. Domingue, Toussaint promised to not support any slave revolts in Jamaica. Domingue had cost the British treasury four million pounds andmen either dead or crippled from the effects of yellow fever. After the departure of the British, Toussaint turned his attention to Rigaud. S Navy being hunting down the French ships that taking American merchantmen.

Navy agreed to support the Haitians with the frigate USS General Greene command how did many new england colonists earn their living Captain Christopher Perry providing fire support to the Haitians as Toussaint laid siege to the city of Jacmel, held by French forces under the command of Rigaud.

It has recently been estimated that the slave rebellion resulted in the death ofHaitians and 50, European troops.

ClassZone

Geggus points out that at least 3 out of every 5 British troops sent there in —97 died of disease. One of the most successful black commanders was Toussaint Louverturea self-educated former domestic slave. After the British had invaded Saint-Domingue, Louverture decided to fight for the French if they would agree to free all the slaves.

Sonthonax had proclaimed an end to slavery on 29 August Louverture abandoned the Spanish army in the east and brought his forces over to the French side on 6 May after the Spanish refused to take steps to end slavery.

Under the military leadership of Toussaint, the forces made up mostly of former slaves succeeded in winning concessions ing vysya forex travel card online login the British and expelling the Spanish forces.

How to be a freelance graphic designer book the end, Toussaint essentially workplace binary options traders forum control of Saint-Domingue to France. Louverture was very intelligent, organized and articulate. Having made himself master of the island, however, Toussaint did not wish to surrender too much power to France.

He began to rule the country as an effectively autonomous entity. Toussaint defeated a British expeditionary force in In addition, he led an invasion of neighboring Santo Domingo Decemberand freed the slaves there on January 3, InLouverture issued a constitution for Saint-Domingue that decreed he how did many new england colonists earn their living be governor-for-life and called for black autonomy and a sovereign black state.

In response, Napoleon Bonaparte dispatched a large expeditionary force of French soldiers and warships to the island, led by Bonaparte's brother-in-law Charles Leclercto restore French rule. Bonaparte ordered that Toussaint was to be treated with respect until the French forces were established; once that should i buy alu stock done, Toussaint was to summoned to Le Cap and be arrested; if he failed to show, Leclerc was to wage "a war to the death" with no mercy and all of Toussaint's followers to be shot when captured.

The French arrived at on 2 February at Le Cap with the Haitian commander Henri Christophe being ordered by Leclerc to turn over the city to the French. It will be safeguarded for you, since it has been only too well earned by your own efforts.

Do not worry about the liberty of your fellow citizens". Domingue observed the training of the Haitian Army, writing: Bear in mind that the soil bathed forex trading through limited company our sweet must not furnish our enemies with the smallest sustenance.

Tear up the roads with shot; throw corpses and horses into all the foundations, burn and annihilate everything in order that those who have come to reduce us to slavery may have before their eyes the image of the hell which they deserve". James writing of Dessalines's actions at Leogane: And forbidding burial, he left stacks of corpses rotting in the sun to strike terror into the French detachments as they toiled behind his flying columns".

Leclerc, ordered four French columns to march on Gonaives, which was the main Haitian base. Finally after twenty days of siege with food and ammunition running out, Dessalines ordered his men to abandon the fort on the night of 24 March and the Haitians slipped out of the fort to fight another day.

Domingue, and as stagnate water collected, the mosquitoes began to breed, leading to yet another outbreak of yellow fever. My troops are exhausted with fatigue and sickness". On 25 Aprilthe situation suddenly changed when Christophe defected with much of the Haitian Army over to the Forex trading demo uk. Louverture agreed to this on 6 May Domingue, that blacks could be officers in the French Army, allowed the Haitian Army to be integrated into the French Army, and gave Toussaint a plantation at Ennery.

He died months later in prison at Fort-de-Joux in the Jura region. Throughout the countryside, guerrilla warfare continued and the French staged mass executions via firing squads, hanging and drowning Haitians in bags. For a few months, the island was quiet under Napoleonic rule. But when it became apparent that the French intended to re-establish slavery because they had nearly done so on Guadeloupeblack cultivators revolted in the summer of Yellow fever had decimated the French as by the middle of Julythe French lost about 10, dead to yellow fever.

At a battle at Port Sault, the Polish Third Battalion fought about Haitians who ambushed them with musket fire and by pushing boulders down on them. As Leclerc laid dying of yellow fever and heard that Christophe and Dessalines had joined the rebels, he reacted by ordering all of the blacks living in Le Cap be killed by drowning them in the harbour. Rochambeau waged a near-genocidal campaign against the Haitians, simply killing everybody who was black.

Domingue had died of yellow fever and the French only held Port-au-PrinceLe Cap and Les Cayes sent about 20, reinforcements to Rochambeau. At Le Cap, when Rochambeau hanged blacks, Dessalines replied by killing whites and sticking their heads on spikes all around Le Cap, so that the French could see what he was planning on doing to them.

Many on both sides had come to see the war as a race war where no mercy was to be given, and the Haitians were just as brutal as the French, as they burned French prisoners alive, cut them up with axes, or tied to a board and sawed them into two.

He was more concerned about France's European enemies such as Great Britain and Prussia. With that, he withdrew a majority of the French forces in Haiti to counter the possibility of an invasion from Prussia, Britain, and Spain on a weakened France. With Napoleon's inability to send the requested massive reinforcements after the outbreak of war on 18 May with the British — the Royal Navy immediately despatched a squadron under Sir John Duckworth from Jamaica to cruise in the region, seeking to eliminate communication between the French outposts and to capture or destroy the French warships based in the colony.

The Blockade of Saint-Domingue not only cut the French forces out from reinforcements and supplies from France, but also meant that the British began to supply arms to the Haitians. In the summer ofwhen war broke out between the United Kingdom and the French Consulate, Saint-Domingue had been almost completely overrun by Haitian forces under the command of Jean-Jacques Dessalines.

Two days later an independently sailing French frigate was chased down and captured in the same waters. The British, led by Commodore John Loring gave chase, but one French ship of the line and a frigate escaped. Another ship of the line was the stock trading almanac against the coast and captured after coming under fire from Haitian shore batteries.

The remainder of the squadron was forced to fight two more actions on their return to Europe, but did eventually reach the Spanish port of Corunna. On 8 Octoberthe French abandoned Port-au-Prince as Rochambeau decided to concentrate what was left of his army at Le Cap. By this point, Perry observed that both sides were "a little mad" as the pressures of the war and yellow fever had taken their toil, and both the French and the Haitians fought with a reckless courage, seeing death in battle as preferable to a slow death by yellow fever or being tortured to death by the enemy.

Rochambeau seeing defeat inevitable procrastinated until the last possible moment, but eventually was forced to surrender to the British forex deal butler — by the end of the month the garrison was starving, having reached the conclusion at a council of war that surrender was the only way to escape from this "place of death".

On the night of 30 November8, French soldiers and hundreds of white civilians boarded the British ships to take them away. Soon after with the few remaining French-held towns in Saint-Domingue surrendered soon afterwards to the Royal Navy to prevent massacres by the Haitian army. Meanwhile, Dessalines led the rebellion until its completion, when the French forces were finally defeated by the end of Although he lasted from toseveral changes began taking place in Haiti.

The independence of Haiti was a major blow to France and its colonial empire, but the French state would take several decades to recognize the loss of the colony. As the French retreated, Haiti, which had once been called the "Pearl of the Antilles", the richest French colony in the world was impoverished as its economy was in ruins after the revolution, and the country descended into anarchy as black and mulattoes now fought each other for control; Haiti never recovered economically from the war.

On 1 JanuaryDessalinesthe new leader under the dictatorial constitution, declared Haiti a free republic in the name of the Haitian people, nasdaq china stock market hours which was followed by the massacre of the remaining whites.

The country was crippled by years of war, its agriculture devastated, its formal commerce nonexistent. To realise this goal Dessalines adopted the economic organisation of serfdom. To avoid the appearance of slavery, however, Dessalines abolished the ultimate symbol of slavery, the whip. Barred from using the whip, many instead turned to lianes, which were thick vines abundant throughout the island, to persuade the laborers to keep working.

New England colonies. Life on the farms. by Alexis Martinez on Prezi

Nevertheless, he succeeded in rebuilding much of the countryside and in raising production levels. Fearing a return of French forces, Dessalines first expanded and maintained a significant military force. Many commentators believe that this overmilitarization contributed to many of Haiti's future problems.

Boyer believed that the constant threat of a French invasion was stymieing the Haitian economy and thus felt the need to settle the matter once and for all. Haiti was therefore forced to take out a loan from French banks, who provided the funds for the large first installment, [10] severely affecting Haiti's ability to prosper. Haitian forces, led by Boyer, invaded neighboring Dominican Republic in February —beginning a year occupation. The end of the Haitian Revolution in marked the end of colonialism on the island.

However, the social conflict cultivated under slavery continued to affect the population for years to come. France continued the slavery system in French Guiana, Martiniqueand Guadeloupe. The massacre was carried out against the remaining white population of French colonists [] and loyalists, [] both enemies and traitors of the revolution [] by the black population of Haiti on the order of Jean-Jacques Dessalineswho declared the French as barbariansdemanding their expulsion and vengeance for their crimes.

During February and March, Dessalines traveled among the cities of Haiti to assure himself that his orders were carried out. Despite his orders, the massacres were often not carried out until he personally visited the cities. The course of the massacre showed an almost identical pattern in every city he visited. Before his arrival, there were only a few killings, despite his orders. Reportedly, he also ordered the unwilling to take part in the killings, especially men of mixed race, so that blame would not rest solely on the black population.

In parallel to the killings, plundering and rape also occurred. Women and children were generally killed last. White women were "often raped or pushed into forced marriages under threat of death". By the end of Aprilsome 3, to 5, persons had been killed [] practically eradicating the country's white population.

Dessalines had specifically stated that France is "the real enemy of the new nation. Ultimately, the massacre had a long-lasting effect on the view of the Haitian Revolution and helped to create a legacy of racial hostility in Haitian society.

Historians continue to debate the importance of the Haitian Revolution. Other historians say the Haitian Revolution influenced slave rebellions in the U. The biggest slave revolt in U.

This slave rebellion was put down and the punishment the slaves received was so severe that no contemporary news reports about it exist. Beginning during the slave insurrections ofwhite refugees from Saint-Domingue fled to the United States, particularly to Philadelphia, Baltimore, New York, and Charleston. While some white refugees blamed the French Revolutionary government for sparking the violence in Haiti, many supported the Republican regime and openly expressed their support of the Jacobins [] There is also some historical evidence suggesting that displaying solidarity with the French Revolution was the easiest way for the refugees to earn the support and sympathy of the Americans, who had just recently lived through their own revolution.

While the exiles found themselves in a peaceful situation in the United States — safe from the violence raging in both France and Haiti — their presence complicated the already precarious diplomatic relations among the UK, France, and the U. Many of the whites and free people of color who left Saint-Domingue for the United States settled in southern Louisiana, adding many new members to its French-speaking, mixed-race, and black populations. The exiles causing the greatest amount of alarm were the African slaves who came with their refugee owners.

Some southern planters grew concerned that the presence of these slaves who had witnessed the revolution in Haiti would ignite similar revolts in the United States.

In Haiti was divided into two parts, the Republic of Haiti in the south, and the Kingdom of Haiti in the north. Land could not be privately owned; it reverted to the State through Biens Nationaux national bondsand no French whites could own land.

The remaining French settlers were forced to leave the island. Those who refused were slaughtered. Since the resistance and the murderous disease environment made it impossible for Napoleon to regain control over Haiti, he gave up hope of rebuilding a French New World empire.

He decided to sell Louisiana to the U. The Haitian Revolution brought about two unintended consequences: There never again was such a large-scale slave rebellion. Napoleon reversed the French abolition of slavery in law, constitution, and practice, which had occurred between andand reinstated slavery in the French colonies in ——which lasted until The revolution of African slaves brought many fears to colonies surrounding Haiti and the Caribbean.

Prominent wealthy American slave ownersreading about the revolution, also read speculation about what might come in their own states. However, newspapers like the Colombian Centinel took the extra steps to support the revolution, in the sense that it was based on the foundations of the American Revolution. However, all was not simple in the press. A top critic who significantly drove Toussaint into fear of backlash from France was Sonthonaxwho was responsible for many outlooks of Haiti in the French newspapers.

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Haitian Revolution Part of the Atlantic RevolutionsFrench Revolutionary Warsand Napoleonic Wars.

Timeline War of the First Coalition. War of the Second Coalition. Italian Campaigns of the French Revolutionary Wars. East Indies theatre of the French Revolutionary Wars.

Naval Battles of the French Revolutionary Wars. Royalist Revolts of the French Revolutionary Wars. Part of a series on the.

Colour Communist Democratic Nonviolent Permanent Political Social Wave. Authoritarianism Autocracy Capitalism Collaborationism Colonialism Cronyism Despotism Dictatorship Discrimination Economic depression Economic inequality Electoral fraud Famine Fascism Feudalism Imperialism Military occupation Monarchy Natural disaster Nepotism Persecution Political corruption Political repression Poverty Totalitarianism Unemployment.

Commercial Revolution Industrial Revolution English Revolution Atlantic Revolutions American Revolution French Revolution Haitian Revolution Serbian Revolution Revolutions of Revolutions of Belgian Revolution Texas Revolution Revolutions of Hungarian Revolution of Philippine Revolution Persian Constitutional Revolution Young Turk Revolution Mexican Revolution Xinhai Revolution Revolutions of —23 Russian Revolution German Revolution of —19 Spanish Revolution of Guatemalan Revolution Chinese Communist Revolution Hungarian Revolution of Cuban Revolution Rwandan Revolution Cultural Revolution Nicaraguan Revolution Iranian Revolution People Power Revolution Carnation Revolution Revolutions of Velvet Revolution Romanian Revolution Singing Revolution Bolivarian Revolution Bulldozer Revolution Rose Revolution Orange Revolution Tulip Revolution Kyrgyz Revolution of Arab Spring Tunisian Revolution Yemeni Revolution Euromaidan.

The American Historical Review. An Appraisal of Recent Literary and Historiographical Works on the Haitian Revolution". Journal of Pan African Studies. Saint-Domingue and the Haitian Revolution". Incorporating Comparisons in the Rift: Making Use of Cross-Place Events and Histories in Moments of World Historical Change, a chapter in Anna Amelina, Beyond methodological nationalism: Retrieved 15 December The Slaves Who Defeated Napoleon: Toussaint Louverture and the Haitian War of Independence — The University of Alabama Press.

New York Commercial Advertiser. Retrieved December 10, Historical Setting", in A Country Study: Retrieved 30 August Weil, Jan Knippers Black, Howard I. The American University Foreign Area Handbook Series CastleBooks, page The Story of the Haitian RevolutionCambridge: Belknap Press, page A Brief History of the Caribbean Revised ed.

The Story of the Haitian Revolution. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press 2OO4. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press Retrieved 27 November Belknap Press, pages 43— CastleBooks, pages 61— The Caribbean in the Wider World, — A Regional Geography. Facts on File, Inc. Haitian-American Relations During the Early RepublicPraeger: James, Black Jacobins Vintage, 2d ed.

The History of the Haitian PeopleNew York: The Caribbean The Genesis of a Fragmented Nationalism 3rd ed. The Impact of the Haitian Revolution in the Atlantic World. University of South Carolina Press The Americas in the Age of Revolution, — The Saint Domingue Revolution from below. University of Tennessee Press, Accessed March 25, Accessed March 26, The Old Regime and the Haitian Revolution. Cambridge University Press, Abbe Raynal," Philosophical and Political History of the Settlements and Trade of the East and West Indiesaccessed May 8,http: The philosophy of the Enlightenment: Black Masses and Tragic Heroes in C.

James's The Black Jacobins. James, The Black Jacobins; Toussaint Louverture and the San Domingo Revolution. Anne-Louis Girodet's Citizen Belley, RACAR: Castle Books, page Dutty BoukmanHaitianite. Retrieved 4 January Castle Books, pages 63— Garrigus, "Slave Revolution in the Caribbean: Castle Books, pages 64— Castle Books, pages 67— Castle Books, pages Castle Books, pages 68— Castle Books, pages 70— Castle Books, page Castle Books, pages 75— Latin America's Wars, Vol.

The Age of the Caudillo, — Encyclopedia of African American Politics. Marr, and John T. Toussaint Louverture and the Haitian War of Independence, — University of Alabama Press. Castle Books, pages 78— Castle Books, pages 79— The Slaves Who Defeated Napoleon Toussaint Louverture and the Haitian War of Independence, — Castle Books, pages 86— Indigent Army, by the General in Chief Dessalines, in the name of the Haitian people.

Held in the British National Archives: A Reappraisal," William and Mary Quarterly July Library of Congress ; Federal Research Division. The Caribbean The Genesis of a Fragmented Nationalism 2nd ed. Haiti and the Geography of Blame. An Encyclopedia [2 volumes]". Retrieved 22 January Or, Side Lights on the French Revolution" 2nd ed.

The Nineteenth-Century War on Terrorism". The named reference Girard was invoked but never defined see the help page. The World of the Haitian Revolution. The Untold Story of America's Largest Slave Revolt. Nathaniel Cutting and the Jeffersonian Republicans.

The Haitian Revolution and the Abolition of Slavery. America's History, Volume 1: Toussaint as Political Dramaturgep. Retrieved 22 August The Evangelical Rewriting of Haitian History". If a page linked from a footnote that cites the Haiti study bears a title different from that cited next to the link, consult A Country Study: Haiti for the revised URL.

The Haitian Revolution and Its Effects. Retrieved 15 May Censer,Jack Richard,; Lynn Avery Hunt Liberty, Equality, Fraternity Exploring the French Revolution. Penn State University Press. Avengers of the New World. Laurent Dubois; John D.

Slave Revolution in the Caribbean, — A Brief History with Documents. Fick, Carolyne "The Haitian revolution and the limit of freedom: Social HistoryVol No 4, November Garrigus, John D. Before Haiti Race and Citizenship in French Saint-Domingue. ISBN Girard, Philippe. Toussaint Louverture's Secret Diplomacy with England and the United States," William and Mary Quarterly The slaves who defeated Napoleon: Cyril Lionel Robert James The Black Jacobins Toussaint Louverture and the San Domingo Revolution 2nd ed.

Race, Religion, and The Haitian Revolution: Essays on Faith, Freedom, and Decolonization CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, Joseph, Celucien L. From Toussaint to Price-Mars: Rhetoric, Race, and Religion in Haitian Thought CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, Ott, Thomas O. The Haitian Revolution, — Les Editions de Paris-Max Chaleil.

The Haitian Revolution and the Abolition of Slavery New York: Cambridge University Press, Jeffers, Jen "Freedom At All Cost: Remembering History's Greatest Slave Rebellion". Chiefdoms Captaincy General of Santo Domingo Colonial governors Santo Domingo Atlantic slave trade Maroons Treaty of Ryswick Saint-Domingue Colonial governors Saint-Domingue Slavery Revolution Massacre Unification of Hispaniola U.

Administrative divisions Arrondissements Cities Deforestation Departments Earthquakes Environment Hispaniola Islands National parks Rivers.

Constitution Elections Foreign relations Government Human rights Law enforcement Military Parliament Political parties President Prime Minister Supreme Court. Agriculture Central bank External debt Foreign aid Gourde currency Poverty Telecommunications Tourism Transport. Crime Demographics Education Ethnic groups Health Religion Social class Water and sanitation.

Art Cinema Cuisine Haitian Creole Haitian French Literature Media Music Mythology Public holidays Television. Brazil —60 Florida —65 Brazil —15 Morocco Beaver Wars — French colonization of Texas —89 Siam King William's War — Queen Anne's War —13 Chickasaw Wars —52 Dummer's War —25 Burma—France relations —56 King George's War —48 First Carnatic War —48 Carnatic Wars Second Carnatic War —54 Nova Scotia —55 French and Indian War —60 East Indies —63 Larache expedition Vietnam — North America —83 Caribbean and East Indies —83 Haitian Revolution — French acquisition of Santo Domingo — French campaign in Egypt and Syria — Retrieved from " https: Haitian Revolution History of Haiti Saint-Domingue Latin American wars of independence Military history of the Caribbean French colonization of the Americas French Revolution Anti-imperialism in North America 18th-century revolutions 18th-century rebellions 19th-century rebellions Slave rebellions in North America Wars of independence History of sugar s in the Caribbean in the Caribbean in the Caribbean in the Caribbean in the Caribbean in the Caribbean in the Caribbean in the Caribbean in the Caribbean in the Caribbean s in the Caribbean in the Caribbean in the Caribbean in the Caribbean in the Caribbean in the Caribbean s in Haiti s in Haiti in Haiti.

Pages with reference errors CS1 maint: Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in. Views Read View source View history. Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store. Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page. Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page.

EHAP Quiz Main PAge

In other projects Wikimedia Commons. This page was last edited on 17 Juneat Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply.

By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view. Part of the Atlantic RevolutionsFrench Revolutionary Warsand Napoleonic Wars. Battle at San Domingoa painting by January Suchodolskidepicting a struggle between Polish troops in French service and the slave rebels and freed revolutionary soldiers.

Haitian victory French colonial government expelled Massacre of the French. Independent Empire of Haiti established. Early history Spanish rule French rule Haitian Revolution Siege of Santo Domingo Imperial era Republican era —86 Post-Duvalier era Post-quake era. Part of a series on. Types Colour Communist Democratic Nonviolent Permanent Political Social Wave. Causes Authoritarianism Autocracy Capitalism Collaborationism Colonialism Cronyism Despotism Dictatorship Discrimination Economic depression Economic inequality Electoral fraud Famine Fascism Feudalism Imperialism Military occupation Monarchy Natural disaster Nepotism Persecution Political corruption Political repression Poverty Totalitarianism Unemployment.

Examples Commercial Revolution Industrial Revolution English Revolution Atlantic Revolutions American Revolution French Revolution Haitian Revolution Serbian Revolution Revolutions of Revolutions of Belgian Revolution Texas Revolution Revolutions of Hungarian Revolution of Philippine Revolution Persian Constitutional Revolution Young Turk Revolution Mexican Revolution Xinhai Revolution Revolutions of —23 Russian Revolution German Revolution of —19 Spanish Revolution of Guatemalan Revolution Chinese Communist Revolution Hungarian Revolution of Cuban Revolution Rwandan Revolution Cultural Revolution Nicaraguan Revolution Iranian Revolution People Power Revolution Carnation Revolution Revolutions of Velvet Revolution Romanian Revolution Singing Revolution Bolivarian Revolution Bulldozer Revolution Rose Revolution Orange Revolution Tulip Revolution Kyrgyz Revolution of Arab Spring Tunisian Revolution Yemeni Revolution Euromaidan.

Simons IslandGeorgiaSuppressed Chatham Manor Virginia, Suppressed German Coast Uprising Territory of OrleansSuppressed George Boxley Virginia, Suppressed Bussa's Rebellion British BarbadosSuppressed Denmark Vesey South CarolinaSuppressed Nat Turner's rebellion Virginia, Suppressed — Baptist War British Jamaica, Suppressed Amistadship rebellion Off the Cuban coast, Victorious Creole case, ship rebellion Off the Southern U.

This section needs additional or better citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. August Learn how and when to remove this template message. Library resources about Haitian Revolution. Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Haitian Revolution. Outline Index Book Category Portal.